How Long Does It Take to Grow Beef Cattle
- Introduction
- Macrominerals
- Microminerals Vitamins
- Selecting a Mineral Supplement
- Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
- Bioavailability
- Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
- Copper Deficiency
- Summary
- Literature Cited
Introduction
Beef cattle require a number of minerals for optimal growth and reproduction. Selecting the correct mineral supplement is important for maintaining healthy animals, and optimal growth and reproduction. Since loftier-quality forages and/or grains can replenish a large portion of the required minerals, producers should select supplements that will meet animal requirements and avoid excesses that reduce profits and lead to unnecessary mineral excretion. Minerals non provided by feed can exist easily and inexpensively supplied with a uncomplicated mineral supplement. A good mineral program for brood cows should cost well-nigh $ten to $20 per year. This bulletin provides data on bones mineral nutrition for virtually forage and feeding programs in Georgia.
Minerals essential to cattle nutrition are classified as either macrominerals or microminerals, depending on whether they are institute at levels greater than or less than 100 parts per 1000000 (ppm) in the animal'due south body.
Macrominerals
The macrominerals beef cattle require include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine and sulfur. Macromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Table 1.
Calcium and Phosphorus
Calcium and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the skeleton. Ninety-nine per centum of total body calcium and lxxx percentage of total trunk phosphorus are stored in the basic. The skeletal stores of calcium and phosphorus are used to meet curt-term dietary inadequacies. Long-term deficiencies of either tin can crusade bones to weaken and even break.
Calcium and phosphorus also play of import roles in other actual functions. A decrease in either or both tin cause a decrease in weight gain and/or a decrease in efficiency of gain. During lactation, low amounts of either will reduce milk production. A superior milking cow requires three times more than calcium than a non-lactating cow. A phosphorus deficiency tin can delay puberty in heifers and can delay mature beef cows from returning to heat post-obit parturition. Cattle also need correct amounts of calcium for the nervous and muscular systems to function properly.
Proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus is affected not but by the amount of each mineral fed, but likewise by their ratio. The optimum Ca:P ratio is about ane.v:one, with a range of 1:one to 4:one being satisfactory. In some high-concentrate rations, ratios higher than 2:1 have been successful.
Most grasses are adequate in calcium. Legumes such as alfalfa, peanut, clover and soybean hay are good sources of calcium, simply corn silage and sorghum silage are poor sources of calcium. In general, most concentrates are relatively poor calcium sources. One exception is citrus pulp, which is relatively loftier in calcium concentration (one.nine percent). Corn, corn by-product feeds and sorghum grain are particularly low in calcium content, and cattle fed grain or corn silage-based diets require calcium supplementation.
Near forages are low in phosphorus, particularly tardily in the growing season. Cattle are more than likely to be phosphorus-deficient during the winter, when they often subsist on dry forages. Concentrates contain moderate to high concentrations of phosphorus. Protein supplements such as cottonseed meal and soybean meal incorporate moderate concentrations, whereas many by-production feeds such as distillers grains, corn gluten feed and wheat middlings, have high phosphorus concentrations.
Sodium and Chlorine
Sodium and chlorine (common salt) provide for the proper function of the nervous and muscular systems. They assist regulate body pH and the amount of water retained in the body. A deficiency of these elements causes loss of appetite and inefficient weight gains or body weight loss. Sodium is usually deficient in diets, only chlorine levels are usually adequate. Both minerals are present in soft tissues and fluids and at that place is very niggling storage of these elements, then a constant, daily source of sodium and chlorine must be provided. Cattle volition voluntarily consume more common salt when forage is immature and succulent than when it matures. Silage-fed cattle volition consume more than salt than those fed hay, and consumption is higher in cattle fed high-roughage diets than in those on high-concentrate diets. Equally a rule of pollex, cattle consume 0.005 to 0.010 percent of their body weight as salt daily. For example, a mature cow weighing 1,200 pounds would consume 0.06 to 0.12 pounds (1,200 x 0.00005 = 0.6), or 1.0 to 1.9 ounces of common salt daily.
Magnesium
Magnesium is essential for proper enzyme and nervous organization office and for efficient carbohydrate metabolism. A magnesium deficiency is uncommon except for cows grazing lush-growth fescue or small grain pastures during the late winter and early on jump, which may crusade grass tetany, a serious and sometimes fatal metabolic disorder. A high rate of nitrogen and potassium fertilization contributes to grass tetany. Excess potassium inhibits magnesium absorption in both provender and animals. Grass tetany usually occurs post-obit an extended period of common cold atmospheric condition combined with high levels of nitrogen and potassium fertilization. Mature lactating cows are peculiarly susceptible to grass tetany.
Grass tetany can usually be prevented by feeding cattle a mineral mixture containing magnesium oxide. A mineral mixture containing 10 to 14 percent magnesium consumed at 4 ounces per day should provide acceptable magnesium. Acceptable salt intake is also of import for preventing grass tetany. Avoid using hard blocks to supplement common salt when cattle are at chance for grass tetany; supply salt in a loose form to allow for adequate salt consumption. When grass tetany is non a risk, blocks can be used to supplement minerals, provided trace minerals are elevated to account for lower intake of block versus loose salt minerals. Animals with grass tetany respond near immediately to an intravenous infusion of calcium-magnesium gluconate.
Potassium
Potassium functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure and the amount of h2o retained in the body. Grasses, particularly early lush spring growth, contains adequate amounts of potassium for grazing cattle and supplementation is rarely needed. Nonetheless, potassium may occasionally be low in stockpiled forages or hay that was rained on prior to baling because potassium is soluble and will leach from the provender.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a part of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which make up protein. A sulfur deficiency in beefiness cattle diets is not likely to occur under normal feeding atmospheric condition. Sulfur is more than likely to be in excess, which can interfere with the metabolism of copper, resulting in a copper deficiency. Also, excess sulfur tin can reduce feed intake and crusade a brain lesion status known as polioencephalomalacia (PEM). Sure past-products such as distillers grains and corn gluten feed contain higher concentrations of sulfur, which should be taken into account in ration balancing. Sulfur is ofttimes added indirectly to the mineral mix through sulfate forms of the microminerals.
| Table 1. Macro mineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle. | ||||
| Mineral | Lactating Cows | Dry Cows | Growing Calves | Maximum Tolerable Level |
| Calcium, % | 0.31 | 0.18 | 0.58 | — |
| Magnesium, % | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.xx | 0.twoscore |
| Phosphorus, % | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.26 | — |
| Potassium, % | 0.60 | 0.lx | 0.70 | 3.0 |
| Sodium, % | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.10 | — |
| Sulfur, % | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.forty |
| NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, Sixth Edition. | ||||
Microminerals
Beef cattle crave ten microminerals. Seven of the ten microminerals have established requirements, including iron, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, cobalt and iodine. The microminerals chromium, molybdenum and nickel do non accept an established requirement and are not normally added to mineral mixes fed to beef cattle. Merely three of the microminerals (copper, zinc and selenium) are likely to be deficient in grazing beefiness cattle diets. Micromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle are shown in Tabular array 2.
Cobalt
Cobalt functions as a component of vitamin B-12, which is synthesized in the rumen by bacteria. The primary deficiency symptom is loss of appetite and poor growth. Near forages in the Southeast have acceptable levels of cobalt; even so, it is unremarkably added in the mineral mix at approximately 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies. Loftier-grain diets crave more cobalt than forage-based diets, and cobalt should e'er be included in the mineral mix when feeding grain-based diets.
Copper
Copper is the most common micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle. Copper is an of import component of many enzyme systems essential for normal growth and development. Deficiency signs include reduced fertility, depressed immunity and reduced pigmentation of hair (black pilus changes to red). Dietary deficiencies can occur, but virtually deficiencies are acquired by the consumption of antagonists, which reduces copper absorption. Copper should be supplemented as copper sulfate, tribasic copper chloride or an organic complexed form because copper oxide is very poorly absorbed.
Iodine
Iodine is an essential mineral for function of the thyroid hormones that regulate energy metabolism. The showtime sign of iodine deficiency is goiter in newborn calves. Iodine is rarely scarce in cow herds in the Southeast. Iodine is normally supplemented as ethylenediamine dihydroidide (EDDI). The maximum legal supplementation of EDDI is 50 mg per head per day. In some instances, EDDI has been included in diets to preclude foot rot; still, the corporeality of EDDI required to forbid foot rot is much higher than requirements and most probable will not forbid foot rot when included at the legal maximum.
Fe
Iron is primarily required for the germination of hemoglobin. Deficiency symptoms include anemia, depressed immunity and decreased weight gains. Fe deficiency is rarely observed in grazing cattle. Iron oxide is frequently included in mineral mixtures, just is unavailable to the animal and serves only as a coloring agent to give the mineral a dark red color. Iron sulfate is bachelor to the animal and should be used if iron supplementation is needed.
Manganese
Manganese is required for normal reproduction, and fetal and udder development. Manganese deficiency is rare and unlikely to be a trouble in grazing cattle in Georgia. Manganese oxide is the most common grade of manganese used in mineral mixes. Corn-based diets are depression in manganese and supplementation is necessary when feeding these diets.
Selenium
Selenium can be deficient in some areas of Georgia. Selenium deficiency causes white muscle disease (like to muscular dystrophy) in newborn calves. Selenium deficiency tin too crusade calves to be weak at birth and increase their susceptibility to calfhood diseases like scours. Increased rates of retained placentas and poor reproductive performance are often observed in cows with selenium deficiencies.
Selenium is generally added to mineral mixtures in the form of sodium selenite. Selenium is very toxic and should be used in a premixed form but. The FDA allows selenium to be used at a level not to exceed 0.three ppm of the dry out thing in the total diet of beef cattle. In areas where deficiencies occur, employ the maximum legal level. The FDA allows up to 120 ppm to be included in a salt-mineral mixture for free-choice feeding. Selenium deficiency should not be a trouble if adequate amounts of selenium are consumed in the mineral supplement. Nonetheless, the concentration of selenium in the supplement and the labeled intake must not result in a total intake of more than three mg per solar day. Thus, a mineral labeled for intake of iv ounces per head per day cannot exceed 26 ppm selenium.
Zinc
Zinc is marginal to deficient in most Georgia forages. Zinc is a component of many enzymes and is important for immunity, male reproduction, and peel and hoof health. Cattle have a express ability to store zinc and supplementation is always necessary. Zinc absorption is closely tied to copper absorption, and the zinc to copper ratio should be kept at approximately 3:1. In addition, loftier levels of atomic number 26 can decrease zinc absorption. Assimilation of zinc decreases once the ratio of fe to zinc exceeds 2:1. Some feedlots feed supplemental zinc methionine to better hoof wellness and thus improve daily gains and feed efficiency.
| Table 2. Micromineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beefiness Cattle. | ||||
| Mineral | Lactating Cows | Dry Cows | Growing Calves | Maximum Tolerable Level |
| Chromium | — | — | — | l.0 |
| Cobalt, ppm | 0.one | 0.ane | 0.1 | 10.0 |
| Copper, ppm | 10.0 | ten.0 | 10.0 | 100.0 |
| Iodine, ppm | 0.50 | 0.fifty | 0.50 | 50.0 |
| Iron, ppm | fifty.0 | 50.0 | fifty.0 | 1000.0 |
| Manganese, ppm | twenty.0 | 40.0 | 40.0 | 1000.0 |
| Molybdenum, ppm | — | — | — | 5.0 |
| Nickel | — | — | — | fifty.0 |
| Selenium, ppm | 0.10 | 0.x | 0.ten | 2.0 |
| Zinc, ppm | 30.0 | 30.0 | xxx.0 | 500.0 |
| NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, Sixth Edition. | ||||
Vitamins
Vitamins are closely linked to mineral metabolism and absorption. Vitamin A helps peel and mucous membranes stay good for you. Vitamin A requirements usually are met past grazing fresh, green, growing grass. Oxidation deteriorates vitamin A during storage, so diets based on stored feeds should be supplemented with vitamin A. Supplement diets with vitamin A whatever time the major portion is stored feeds.
Vitamin A can be added to a mineral mix in a stabilized form to prevent oxidation. The minimum amount should be approximately 120,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A per pound of mineral. Vitamin A can also be added to the grain mixture to provide fifteen,000 to 30,000 IU per head per mean solar day, depending on private requirements. An alternative method is to inject one.v million IU subcutaneously if a source of dietary citamin A is not bachelor for 60 to 90 days, although unnecessary injections are discouraged in consideration of National Beef Quality Balls guidelines.
Vitamin D aids the assimilation of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and their deposition in the os matrix. Signs of vitamin D deficiency are similar to a calcium or phosphorus deficiency. Most cattle exposed to directly sunlight synthesize enough vitamin D, merely cattle in a covered confinement feedlot may need supplemental vitamin D.
Vitamin Eastward is usually present in the diet in sufficient quantities for all classes of cattle; however, a selenium deficiency could lead to an apparent deficiency of vitamin E. Vitamin East tin exist helpful for brusk-term periods of stress that may occur when calves are co-mingled and transported at weaning.
Other essential vitamins are commonly present in adequate quantities in the diet or are synthesized by bacteria in the rumen.
Selecting a Mineral Supplement
The average mineral content of several forages, grains and by-production feeds are shown in Tabular array three. The actual mineral content of feeds, especially forages and past-products, will vary, and so all feeds should be tested for actual mineral content. Still, the mineral concentrations can be used as a guide when choosing a mineral supplement to complement a detail feed ingredient. In addition, an example mineral mix for lactating cows is provided in Table 4. The calcium to phosphorus ratio in near mineral mixes should be 2:1 to 4:i. Phosphorus supplementation may not be needed if forages accept been fertilized with poultry litter or when feeding loftier-phosphorus feeds such every bit cottonseed, cottonseed meal, distillers grains or corn gluten feed. Table salt is not stored in the animal'southward body and should be made bachelor continuously. Common salt is the only mineral that cattle crave, and salt-deprived cattle volition ofttimes eat dirt or wood. A mineral mix should contain 15 to 22 percent salt. Magnesium should be at least fourteen percent in the mineral mix when grass tetany is a concern. Too, closely examine mineral tags for improver of unnecessary products such as B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid). These vitamins are usually not needed by grazing cattle because they are produced by the rumen bacteria and increase the cost of the supplement.
The nearly important points to consider when purchasing minerals are calcium to phosphorus levels, common salt level, bioavailability (particularly copper), level of "trace minerals" in the supplement, and additives. You can learn a lot about the mineral you are feeding past studying the mineral tag for a few minutes. In improver, minerals are often used to deliver products such as ionophores (Rumensin, Bovatec) and antibiotics (chlortetracycline, GainPro). Carefully read label instructions when using medicated mineral mixes to ensure adequate intake and to ensure the product is labeled for the intended use.
Grain-based diets
There are many differences between mineral supplements designed for a forage-based versus a grain-based diet. Since grains and most by-product feeds except citrus pulp contain low concentrates of calcium, supplements should contain approximately 25 percent calcium and exist fed at a charge per unit of iv ounces per twenty-four hours. Supplemental table salt should be provided at one to 1.nine ounces per twenty-four hours. The principal microminerals of nigh business are zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium. Trace mineral salt is normally added at 0.5 per centum of the diet to provide most supplemental trace mineral needs. Selenium may need to be added to maintain a total diet concentration of 0.1 ppm. Boosted phosphorus supplementation is rarely required when feeding grain-based diets.
| Tabular array 3. Mineral content of usually used forages and concentrate feeds. | ||||||
| Feedstuff | Calcium % | Phosphorus % | Potassium % | Sulfur % | Copper, ppm | Zinc, ppm |
| Bahiagrass Pasture | 0.46 | 0.22 | 1.45 | 0.21 | eight.0 | 20.0 |
| Bermudagrass Pasture | 0.39 | 0.26 | ane.iii | 0.28 | 9.0 | 20.0 |
| Bermudagrass Hay | 0.43 | 0.20 | 1.61 | 0.21 | ix.0 | 20.0 |
| Fescue Pasture | 0.51 | 0.27 | ii.three | 0.nineteen | 5.8 | 18.seven |
| Fescue Hay | 0.51 | 0.37 | 2.3 | 0.18 | 6.0 | 22.0 |
| Corn | 0.03 | 0.31 | 0.33 | 0.14 | iv.viii | sixteen.0 |
| Corn Silage | 0.25 | 0.22 | 1.14 | 0.12 | 4.two | 17.vii |
| Corn Gluten Feed | 0.07 | 0.95 | 1.40 | 0.47 | seven.0 | 73.iii |
| Cottonseed Meal, 41% | 0.twenty | 1.16 | 1.65 | 0.42 | 16.5 | 74.0 |
| Whole Cottonseed | 0.16 | 0.62 | 1.22 | 0.26 | seven.nine | 37.seven |
| Soyhulls | 0.53 | 0.18 | 1.29 | 0.11 | 17.viii | 48.0 |
| Soybean Meal, 44% | 0.40 | 0.71 | ii.22 | 0.46 | 22.4 | 57.0 |
| Molasses | 1.00 | 0.10 | 4.01 | 0.47 | 65.7 | 21.0 |
| Citrus Pulp | 1.88 | 0.13 | 0.77 | 0.08 | six.2 | 15.0 |
| NRC, 1996. Adjusted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition. | ||||||
| Table 4. Instance costless-choice mineral specifications for lactating cows. | |
| Mineral | 4 Ounce Intake Per Day |
| Calcium | 10 to 15% |
| Phosphorus | 4 to viii% |
| Salt | 15 to twenty% |
| Magnesium1 | 1% |
| Sulfur2 | 0.five% |
| Copper | 0.12% (1200 ppm) |
| Zinc | 0.3% (3000 ppm) |
| Cobalt | 0.001% (10 ppm) |
| Iodine | 0.008% (lxxx ppm) |
| Selenium | 0.0026% (26 ppm) |
| aneMagnesium should be increased to at least ten% when grass tetany is a concern 2Sulfur supplementation is usually not required, however information technology is often added to mineral mixes by the apply of sulfate forms of other minerals. | |
Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
Decision-making intake at the desired level is very challenging because mineral intake fluctuates. Monitor mineral intake for several weeks prior to implementing direction practices to change mineral intake. If mineral intake is as well loftier or low, move the mineral feeder either closer to or further away from the h2o source and loafing areas. When cattle are over-consuming mineral, table salt is oft added to reduce the amount of minerals cattle eat. Salt level has a significant bear upon on mineral intake and is easily changed to command intake; however, yous must account for the additional salt when determining the correct intake. For example, if a mineral with a recommended feeding rate of 4 ounces per day is mixed in a 50:50 ratio with plain white table salt, the cattle should consume viii ounces per mean solar day. This would supply the cattle with the targeted corporeality of 4 ounces of mineral plus four ounces of added salt. When under-consumption is a problem, try adding dried molasses or modify brands to a more palatable mineral. In addition, proceed in mind that calves can eat meaning amounts of mineral and this should exist considered before decreasing the feeding level.
If mineral intake is inadequate, endeavor adding a palatable feedstuff to the mix. Feeds such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal, dry out molasses and distillers grains tin can improve mineral intake. Moving the mineral feeder closer to the h2o source tin can improve intake. In addition, irresolute mineral brands will sometimes provide a mineral that is more palatable.
Regularly monitor mineral consumption by keeping a record of animal numbers and feeding amounts to combat potential mineral intake problems.
Mineral Feeders
Mineral feeder placement is a very important part of supplying minerals to the cow herd. Be sure an adequate number of feeders are available for the stocking charge per unit of the pasture. A dominion of pollex is to provide i mineral feeding station for every 30 to 50 cows. The best areas to place mineral feeders are near water, in shaded loafing areas and about the best grazing areas. Check feeders at least one time a week and go on a clean, fresh supply of minerals present at all times. A proficient feeder should keep minerals dry out, be portable and concord upward to corruption and corrosion. Open tubs are non adequate in the Southeast. Because minerals tin can be corrosive to metals, feeders fabricated of woods, fiberglass or plastic ordinarily last longer. Permanent mineral feeders made of physical also piece of work well, just portability is a problem.
Supplement Form
Feeding minerals free-choice in a loose mix class is most desirable for brood cows. For cattle on complete diets, minerals are most optimally supplied when mixed in a TMR. When supplementing in a block course, trace minerals must exist higher than what is independent in a loose mineral mix, every bit the creature volition usually consume only i to 2 ounces per twenty-four hour period. In addition, some blocks comprise only trace mineralized table salt, which will non meet the creature'southward requirements for macrominerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Advisedly read the characterization on a block mineral supplement to make sure the product contains all needed minerals. Block minerals are sometimes used when supplementing cattle that take not had access to minerals for a long menses of time. In this situation, cattle will greatly over-consume minerals in a loose mix class if given free-choice access. Blocks can exist used for a short period of time to prevent mineral over-consumption. Do non supply plainly white salt and mineral separately since intake of the mineral volition likely be as well low because cattle will crave only the common salt.
Commercial protein and energy supplements are sometimes fortified with minerals. Commercial supplements come in the form of dry pelletted feeds, liquid molasses supplements, hard molasses-based blocks, or hard-pressed grain-based blocks. Information technology is non necessary to provide a free-selection mineral supplement along with the commercial protein/free energy supplement. Feeding minerals in both the complimentary-choice mineral and the protein/free energy supplement should not negatively affect performance, just information technology is an expense that could be saved. It may be necessary to only offer plain white table salt blocks when feeding the commercial protein/energy supplements.
Flavor
Mineral intake is usually higher when lush fodder is available and lower during the fall or periods of drought. Mineral content and forage digestibility declines with increasing constitute maturity. Mature forages are consumed in lower quantity, further reducing mineral intake. Rapidly growing, lush forages have a college availability of minerals compared with mature forages. In addition, mineral content is college in forages grown on soils with greater fertility. Spring grass is ordinarily well fertilized and highly digestible, which leads to greater intake of mineral from forages and reduced consumption of supplemental mineral during that fourth dimension of the year.
Feeding Method
Stocker calves are sometimes fed a complete grain- or silage-based ration mixed on the farm. Thoroughly mixing minerals in mixed rations is difficult; only a small quantity of mineral is required and it separates easily from the larger particle sizes of grain and forages. It may be wiser to utilise a mineral supplement that has a higher feeding rate or feed the mineral gratuitous-pick or as a superlative dress.
A trial was conducted to compare feeding a mineral supplement by free-choice feeding or elevation-dressing the mineral on the feed each day. The mineral contained an ionophore (Bovatec®). Results of the trial, in which heifers were fed hay, corn, corn silage and minerals either in a free-choice feeder or where supplemental minerals were elevation-dressed (4 ounces per day) on the feed each day, are shown in Table v. Supplementing minerals either gratis-choice or top-dressing resulted in like daily gains. Heifers fed minerals gratis-choice consumed about 0.five ounces per head less than the targeted intake of iv ounces per day just were inside the range required for the ionophore to be effective. If specific amounts of a particular mineral or feed additive are required per twenty-four hours, it would exist desirable to top-dress or mix the mineral into the feed every day rather than allow free-choice consumption. When feeding minerals free-choice, closely monitor mineral consumption to make sure intake is acceptable. This is of particular importance when feeding an additive such as an ionophore or antibody.
| Table 5. Operation of heifers provided supplemental minerals either free-pick or top dressed onto feed daily. | ||
| Item | Gratuitous-choice | Pinnacle-dressed |
| Initial wt, lbs | 574 | 579 |
| Final wt, lbs | 736 | 736 |
| Total gain, lbs | 162 | 157 |
| Daily gain, lbs | ane.93 | 1.87 |
| Mineral intake, ounces/day | 3.52 | four.00 |
Bioavailability
Consider the bioavailability of the mineral supplements when purchasing minerals. Bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than bioavailability of oxides. Ane exception is magnesium oxide, which is absorbed well enough to be used in beef cattle minerals. However, avoid mineral supplements that utilise copper oxide, which is poorly absorbed. Fe oxide is as well poorly absorbed and is generally used to add color to the mineral mix. Considering of the forages and feedstuffs in Georgia, cattle seldom require atomic number 26 supplementation, then the addition of atomic number 26 oxide should not negatively bear upon cattle performance and may exist beneficial since iron tin can demark other minerals and prevent their absorption.
Minerals are normally included in supplements in the inorganic class merely may likewise exist combined with an amino acid or protein and fed in the organic form (referred to as complexes, proteinates or chelates). Minerals that are sometimes fed in the organic grade include copper, zinc, cobalt and manganese with an amino acid or protein. The relative bioavailability of copper, manganese and zinc from different sources is higher compared to inorganic sources as outlined in Table 6.
Organic minerals cost more than inorganic minerals; therefore, an increase in performance must be realized to commencement the college purchase toll. The response to organic minerals has been variable and they are only recommended in certain situations. Organic minerals take been effective in increasing the reproductive efficiency of young convenance females nether nutritional stress, or reducing morbidity and bloodshed of newly weaned calves that are highly susceptible to bovine respiratory disease. For cows, organic minerals are usually fed from two months prior to calving through breeding. For calves, organic minerals are generally included but during the preconditioning period. However, zinc methionine may be fed continually during the feeding period to decrease lameness.
| Table half-dozen. Relative bioavailability of microminerals from different sources1 | |||||
| Mineral | Sulfate-course | Oxide-form | Carbonate | Chloride-form | Organic-form (circuitous, chelate) |
| Copper | 100 | 0 | — | 105 | 130 |
| Manganese | 100 | 58 | 28 | — | 176 |
| Zinc | 100 | — | 60 | 40 | 159 to 206 |
| 1Availability relative to that of the sulfate grade.Adjusted from Greene, 1995. | |||||
Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
A mineral deficiency in cattle is difficult to diagnose and can silently rob profits from the herd. Most deficiencies are related to copper, zinc and selenium, but other mineral deficiencies can occur.
Mineral deficiencies are classified as either primary or secondary deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies occur when cattle consume forages that are scarce in a particular mineral such every bit magnesium. Failure to provide a mineral supplement is the most mutual cause of main mineral deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies rarely occur in well-managed herds that receive mineral supplements.
A secondary mineral deficiency occurs when cattle consume mineral antagonists, which interfere with the normal assimilation or metabolism of some other mineral. In the case of copper deficiency, cattle are consuming plenty copper to meet requirements, but some other mineral antagonist such as sulfur binds to the copper and prevents information technology from being absorbed and used by the animal. Secondary mineral deficiencies are the virtually common type of mineral deficiency. Accept the following steps to ensure that the problem is due to a mineral deficiency.
- First, rule out other possible causes of poor performance such as affliction, establish toxins, or inadequate protein and energy in the diet. The first sign of a trouble in most herds is poor reproductive efficiency. Inadequate body condition, due to protein or energy deficiency, is the most common cause of reproductive failure.
- Monitor mineral intake to ensure cattle are eating the recommended amounts. A recommended intake is usually indicated on the mineral bag.
- Evaluate the trace mineral levels and sources of each trace mineral. Retrieve that the bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than that of oxides.
- Breed can too affect the mineral requirements of the cow herd. Simmental and Charolais cattle require more copper than Angus cattle. Levels may need to be increased 25 to l per centum for these breeds.
- If a secondary mineral deficiency is suspected, then a laboratory analysis of forages must be conducted. In some instances, water should exist tested if it is suspected that information technology might be loftier in atomic number 26 or sulfur.
- Blood samples and liver biopsies may too be used to assess the mineral condition of a cow. Liver samples are a more accurate indicator of mineral status. These tests are expensive and should be pursued only after the above steps accept been taken.
- Ask for help from county agents, specialists, veterinarians and feed dealers. No 1 person knows all the answers and a team arroyo to solving a mineral problem is often required.
Copper Deficiency
Copper deficiency is an increasing concern in Georgia and other Southeastern states. Copper deficiency causes a wide range of issues such as poor hair glaze, brittle bones, reduced weight gains and a weakened immune organization. The University of Tennessee reported a copper deficiency in as many every bit 99 pct of tall fescue provender samples, and increased deficiency in the autumn rather than jump. Results of copper concentrations in forages every bit reported by NRC are presented in Tabular array 7, but bodily concentrations vary due to soil type, fertilization and climate. For best results, test forages and feed ingredients.
One of the most visible signs of copper deficiency is change in hair color. Cattle with black pilus will develop a reddish or gray tint. Cattle with red hair will become more bleached. Another common trouble associated with copper deficiency is lowered immunity. The combination of low copper and high sulfur concentrations in pasture grasses can result in copper being deficient even in the nearly well managed herds.
Sulfur antagonisms are the most common crusade of copper deficiencies in Georgia forages. Results of the NAHMS forage survey indicated that sulfur concentrations were marginal to loftier combative in 79 percent of samples. Iron and molybdenum showed marginal to highly antagonistic levels in thirteen and 18 percent of samples, respectively. Sulfur is present in all feedstuffs and is incorporated in some mineral supplements. The most significant sources of sulfur are direct supplementation, sulfur-containing fertilizers, water and energy/protein supplements.
Ammonium sulfate fertilizers are widely available and their use is on the ascension. In the past, fertilizers contained modest amounts of sulfur. All the same, modern methods of fertilizer production have eliminated whatever sulfur contagion. Therefore, sulfur-containing fertilizers are now existence used to supply this important nutrient to pastures. In a University of Florida written report, bahiagrass pastures were fertilized with either ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate to provide 60 pounds of nitrogen per acre. Ammonium sulfate increased forage yield in one of three years but increased establish sulfur levels to 0.50 percent. Sulfur becomes a trouble when the concentration reaches or exceeds 0.35 percentage. Liver copper concentrations in cows grazing pastures fertilized with ammonium sulfate were considered deficient, simply were adequate in cows that grazed forages not fertilized with ammonium sulfate. In improver, use of poultry litter as a fertilizer volition also elevate forage sulfur levels.
Only providing more copper in the mineral supplement may not improve copper status, because as long as sulfur is present in excessive amounts in the forage, copper assimilation will be decreased. If sulfur levels are borderline loftier (0.35 percent sulfur), then it can be helpful to increment copper concentrations up to 2,500 ppm. In the Florida study, even though the cows were copper deficient, no signs of deficiency or poor functioning were noted. Many times, copper deficiencies practise not show upward until calves become sick after weaning and shipping. In a separate report, cows deficient in copper were able to rapidly replenish their liver copper concentrations to adequate levels when fed a low-sulfur diet.
Certain energy and poly peptide supplements can also contribute meaning amounts of dietary sulfur. Feedstuffs that contain sulfur in combative amounts include corn gluten feed, corn gluten repast, distillers grains, molasses, soybean meal and cottonseed meal. Protein supplements are fed in small amounts, and so sulfur concentration is diluted past the remainder of the diet. Molasses-based supplements are unremarkably used in wintertime feeding programs. The Academy of Florida has conducted studies to examine the result of molasses on copper assimilation in grazing heifers. The researchers compared a corn-based supplement to a molasses-based supplement. Accumulation of copper in the liver increased past 46 per centum for heifers fed the corn-based supplement, but decreased nine percent for heifers fed the molasses-based supplement. Absorption of other microminerals (zinc, iron, manganese) was not afflicted by supplement type.
Most high-sulfur feeds are just consumed during the wintertime feeding menstruum and should not significantly affect copper status. Cattle are able to utilize copper stored in the liver during the grazing season, which should reduce the problem of depletion during the wintertime feeding flow. Sulfur from pasture and hay is the primary cause of copper deficiency because they are consumed twelvemonth-around. The only concern for winter feeding is when cattle have been on pastures that are loftier in sulfur or are existence fed hay that has sulfur levels antagonistic to mineral absorption. Consider feeding low-sulfur feeds during the pre-conditioning menstruum, particularly if your cattle have had wellness problems in the past when fed high-sulfur feeds.
| Table 7. Nomenclature of micro elements in fodder relative to their abilities to meet either dietary requirements or crusade an combative problem with copper. | ||||
| Microminerals | Deficient | Marginally Deficient | Adequate | MTC1 |
| Aluminum (ppm) | — | — | — | chiliad |
| Copper (ppm) | <4 | 4 to nine.9 | eastward"x | 100 |
| Manganese (ppm) | <20 | 20 to 39.nine | e"40 | one thousand |
| Zinc (ppm) | <20 | 20 to 29.9 | e"thirty | 500 |
| Selenium (ppm) | <100 | 100 to 199.9 | 200 | 2000 |
| Copper:Mo ratio | <4:one | iv.0 to iv.5:one | >4.five to 5:i | — |
| 1Maximum Tolerable Concentration — Source: NAHMS, 1999 | ||||
Summary
Mineral and vitamin nutrition is vital to overall herd health and reproductive efficiency. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are nearly probable to be the almost limiting macrominerals in cattle diets. Magnesium may be a problem during tardily winter or early leap, especially in mature lactating cows. Secondary mineral deficiencies are an increasing concern because of increasing sulfur concentrations in homegrown feeds. A clear diagnosis of a mineral deficiency should be established earlier making drastic changes in a management or mineral programme. Vitamins A, D and East are the only vitamins that may exist deficient in beefiness cattle diets. Controlling daily intake is a constant challenge, but several management strategies tin can be used to ensure proper daily intake of minerals and vitamins.
Literature Cited
Arthington, J.D., and C.One thousand. Swenson. 2004. Effects of trace mineral source and feeding method on the productivity of grazing Braford cows. Prof. Anim. Sci. 20:155-161.
Arthington, J.D., and F.G. Pate. 2002. Effect of corn- versus molasses-based supplements on trace mineral absorption in beef heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 80:2787-2791.
Arthington, J.D., J.E. Rechcigl, G.P. Yost, Fifty.R. McDowell, and M.D. Fanning. 2002. Effect of ammonium sulfate fertilization on bahiagrass quality and copper metabolism in grazing beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 80:2507-2512.
Gadberry, S. 2004. Mineral and vitamin supplementation of beef cows in Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas Extension. FSA:3035
Gill, Westward., C. Lane, J. Neel, and A. Fisher. 2004. Mineral nutrition of beefiness cattle. Univ. of Tennessee Extension. PB:1749.
Greene, L.West. 1995. The nutritional value of inorganic and organic mineral sources. Update of mineral nutrition of beef cattle. San Antonio, TX. In: Proc. Plains Nutr. Council Symp. Pp 23-32.
Unhurt, C., and 1000.C. Olson. 2001. Mineral supplements for beefiness cattle. Univ. of Missouri Extension. G2081.
Mortimor, R.G., D.A. Dargatz, and L.R. Corah. 1999. Forage Analysis from cow/calf herds in 23 states. Fort Collins, CO. USDA:APHIS:VS, Centers for Epidemiology and Animate being Wellness. #N303.499.
Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 1996. Washington, D.C. National Inquiry Council.
Ward, J.D., J.W.Spears, and Thou.P. Gengelbach. 1995. Differences in copper condition and copper metabolism amongst Angus, Simmental, and Charolais cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:571.
Status and Revision History
Published on Jan 04, 2007
Published on Feb 04, 2009
In Review on Jan 05, 2010
Published on Feb 16, 2010
Published with Full Review on Mar 14, 2013
Published with Full Review on Mar 31, 2017
Source: https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B895
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